Introduction
Australia has a long history of merger and acquisition activity, and consequently the debt financing of these acquisitions is a well-trodden path for lenders and borrowers alike. Traditionally, the senior debt financing of acquisitions in Australia has been the domain of the banks, international and domestic, with the local 'Big Four' banks often taking lead roles in relation to the arranging and underwriting of these facilities. However, in line with developments in the US and Europe, the Australian market has experienced strong growth in non-bank lending, particularly from private credit funds and institutional lenders, and these players have become increasingly prevalent, particularly in sponsor-backed large and mid-market transactions.
Traditionally, an Australian acquisition finance package featured an amortising term loan A (although amortisation has now become an unusual feature), together with a bullet term loan B, to fund the acquisition of the target group. These facilities would generally be accompanied by a pari passu revolving facility that is designed to meet the target's working capital and contingent instrument needs post-acquisition. Capital expenditure or acquisition facilities were also frequently included (generally on a committed basis). Subordinated debt provided by specialised institutions (usually in the form of mezzanine loans or local capital markets products) remains relevant for larger or more complex transactions, though mezzanine funding is now commonly provided on a 'PIK' basis at a level above the bank group, being the holdco level. This enables sponsors and senior lenders to avoid much of the inter-creditor complexity that comes from having this subordinated debt provided at (or just above) the level of the senior debt. Loan documentation in the Australian market is usually heavily negotiated but is also relatively standardised, often following the Asia Pacific Loan Market Association (or ‘APLMA’) precedents, thus enabling loans to be drafted, priced and syndicated to a wide pool of financiers.
Increasingly, private credit funds have been providing a range of additional debt products not offered by the major domestic banks to finance acquisitions, including unitranche loans (a hybrid loan that rolls senior and mezzanine debt into a single debt instrument). These are popular, particularly with private equity sponsors, on the basis that they are nimble, flexible (particularly from a covenant perspective) and relatively easy to execute. Consequently, acquisition financing in Australia has evolved into a dual-track market, where traditional syndicated bank deals and bespoke private credit solutions coexist, giving sponsors a broader range of funding options.
Year in review
Notwithstanding the first half of 2025 being a challenging time for global markets and M&A activity generally, Australian M&A experienced a notable rebound with total deal value reaching US$63.3 billion across 492 deals, nearly doubling the US$31.8 billion recorded over a similar volume of 489 deals in the first half of 2024. The significant increase in deal value was largely concentrated in the oil and gas and technology sectors and underpinned by a few mega deals (i.e., transactions over A$1 billion), most notably the proposed US$24 billion acquisition of Santos by a consortium of Abu Dhabi-based investors and Carlyle, and Vocus’ A$5.25 billion acquisition of TPG Telecom’s fixed and fibre network assets. Excluding such large-scale transactions, the increase in corporate deal activity in Australia this year was relatively modest, as the market continues to be sensitive to global macroeconomic and geopolitical shocks. This became more evident in the second half of 2025, with a number of large-scale transactions faltering, contributing to what Reuters describes as “nearly US$40 billion of collapsed M&A” in Australia in 2025. For example, the indicative takeover bid for Santos was withdrawn, highlighting the fragility at the top end of the market, compared to the mid-market which arguably remains more insulated (though not immune) from volatility.
Private equity transactions in Australia saw an increase in the first half of 2025, with both deal value and volume rising compared to the same period in 2024. Buyout activity rose to US$27.3 billion across 45 deals, a substantial jump from US$ 3.9 billion across 35 transactions in H1 2024, although these figures still fall short of the more robust levels seen in previous years. Australia’s reputation as a safe haven amid global tariff uncertainty may have contributed to this uptick, with most deals in the region insulated from a direct exposure to US goods exports. Additionally, sponsors are increasingly recognising that uncertainty and volatility are now structural features of the market, rather than temporary disruptions. This shift in perspective, combined with record levels of dry powder and aging portfolio assets, is driving renewed deal activity, while weaker demand for US dollar assets appears to be diverting capital flows into the Asia-Pacific region, with Australia benefiting in particular. Despite the rise in transactions, support for acquisition financings has varied significantly depending on the quality of the underlying credit, with banks and private credit funds frequently seeking to manage their risk by obtaining credit risk insurance for transactions.
Despite the modest improvement in M&A activity, refinancings, repricings and shorter-term loan extensions continue to be a dominant feature of loan markets in Australia, with refinancing deals accounting for 66.5 per cent of the total loan volume in Asia Pacific (excluding Japan) in the first half of 2025. In response to ongoing market uncertainty, some sponsors and borrowers in Australia have opted for shorter-term tenor extensions, providing temporary relief to the maturity wall as they await more stable market conditions. Similar to the trend in M&A activity, the loan markets also experienced a surge in mega deals, with 24 transactions exceeding A$1 billion in H1 2025, double the number in 2024, suggesting renewed confidence in large-scale financing. Also, loans to Australian entities accounted for 37.6 per cent of the total volume of loans in the region in 1H25, demonstrating investor confidence in Australia as a stable and attractive environment for lending activity.
Institutional lenders and private credit funds have continued to play a prominent role in syndicated lending transactions throughout 2025. These non-bank lenders remain attractive to sponsors, particularly for their willingness to provide a range of products not offered by the major domestic banks, such as unitranche or Term Loan B (TLB) financings that have 'covenant-lite' structures, payment-in-kind interest and flexible borrower-friendly terms. However, the growing influence of private credit providers has drawn increased regulatory attention, with the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) releasing a discussion paper in February 2025, confirming that it is currently considering the regulatory framework underpinning the private credit market as part of a two-year review. ASIC’s focus seems to be on the key areas of governance, valuation practices, management of conflicts of interest and the exposure of retail investors to the private credit market (indirectly through compulsory superannuation contributions, with superannuation funds providing a significant portion of the private capital).
While the private credit market remains a compelling option for sponsors and borrowers, the first half of 2025 has seen a resurgence of traditional senior bank lending. This shift reflects both a recalibration of leverage levels, often below levels that would typically justify a unitranche structure, and an increasingly competitive stance from the traditional banks. In addition to sharpening their pricing, some of the banks are showing greater flexibility on terms, re-establishing themselves as a credible alternative for sponsors seeking balance between cost efficiency and structural flexibility. Some recent transactions where sponsors have obtained senior bank financing include Affinity Private Equity’s A$965 acquisition of Lumus Imaging, Pacific Equity Partner’s proposed A$1.3 billion acquisition of Johns Lyng Group and Permira’s A$1.8 billion refinance of I-MED Radiology. At the same time, mezzanine debt has re-emerged as an important part of the capital structure in larger financings. The blended cost of combining senior bank and mezzanine debt is providing sponsors with another viable and cost-efficient solution, further diversifying the range of financing options available in the Australian market.
Environmental, social and governance (ESG)-linked loan issuances continue to be popular in Australia despite global declines, with data centre financing emerging as a standout segment. Most notably, AirTrunk closed a landmark A$16 billion sustainability‑linked refinancing, the largest of its kind in the region to date. The deal – backed by a consortium of over 60 banks – comprised green loans and sustainability‑linked loans (SLLs) tied to energy, water efficiency, renewable adoption and gender pay equity goals. Reflecting this momentum, green loan issuance in the Asia Pacific (excluding Japan) surged 68.3 per cent year-on-year in H1 2025, with Australia accounting for more than a quarter of the regional total. Conversely, private credit providers are increasingly capitalising on opportunities to finance borrowers in sectors (for instance, coal and defence) where banks have scaled-back their exposures due to ESG concerns.
There has been a continued uptick in real estate financing transactions in the Australian build-to-rent and social and affordable housing markets, with increased levels of both foreign investment and local investment, particularly from large global real estate funds and Australian superannuation funds. This growth has been driven in part by strong rental market demand and proposed government initiatives to remove certain tax and regulatory hurdles that may have previously deterred foreign investment in this sector.
Regulatory and tax matters
Regulation of foreign investments in Australia
The Australian Foreign Acquisitions and Takeovers Act 1975 (Cth) (FATA) and its associated regulations (administered by the Foreign Investment Review Board (FIRB)) regulate the making of investments by foreign persons in Australian companies and assets (and in some cases offshore companies with the requisite Australian connection).
In general, the legislation regulates four kinds of actions:
significant actions;
notifiable actions;
notifiable national security actions; and
reviewable national security actions.
Significant or notifiable actions
The Treasurer has the power to make orders in relation to significant actions (including blocking them, ordering divestments or imposing conditions) if the Treasurer considers the transaction to be contrary to the national interest. Approval only must be sought for these if they are also notifiable actions or notifiable national security actions (but see below regarding the Treasurer’s call-in powers).
Notifiable actions are a category of transaction that requires approval. Most notifiable actions are also significant actions (meaning the Treasurer has the above powers).
Common significant, or significant and notifiable, actions are:
the acquisition of 20 per cent or more of an Australian entity that is valued above the current monetary thresholds (currently A$339 million, or A$1,464 million where a higher treaty threshold can be relied on and the business is not a sensitive business) (thresholds are indexed annually on 1 January);
the acquisition by a foreign person that is a foreign government investor of 10 per cent or more (and sometimes less than 10 per cent) of an Australian entity or business (subject to a de minimis exemption, where the acquisition is of an offshore entity with an Australian subsidiary that meets certain tests);
the acquisition of 10 per cent or more (and sometimes less than 10 per cent) of an Australian entity that carries on an agribusiness where the investment is valued above the then current monetary threshold;
the acquisition of an interest in land valued above the then current monetary threshold (which varies depending on the kind of land and who the acquirer is), unless an exception applies; and
the acquisition of 10 per cent or more (and sometimes less than 10 per cent) of an Australian media business.
The interests described above include securities, voting interests and the securities or voting interests one would hold if rights such as options were exercised. There are also special rules relating to veto rights, which can be deemed to be an interest of 20 per cent for certain purposes.
A foreign government investor (FGI) in general includes a foreign government or agency, sovereign wealth funds, state-owned enterprises, public pension funds, public universities and the like, or corporations, trustees of trusts or general partners of limited partnerships where, in respect of the corporation, trust or limited partnership:
FGIs from one country hold 20 per cent of the interests; or
FGIs from multiple countries hold 40 per cent or more of the interests, subject to an exception for passive investors (which does not apply to the 20 per cent limb).
Notifiable national security actions
The Treasurer has the power to make orders in relation to notifiable national security actions (including blocking them, imposing conditions or ordering divestments) if the Treasurer considers the transaction to be contrary to national security (which is narrower than the national interest test above). These actions require approval. An action is a notifiable national security action if the action is taken, or proposed to be taken, by a foreign person and the action is any of the following:
starting a national security business;
acquiring an interest of 10 per cent or more (and in some cases less than 10 per cent) in a national security business;
acquiring an interest of 10 per cent or more (and in some cases less than 10 per cent) in an entity that carries on a national security business;
acquiring an interest in Australian land that, at the time of acquisition, is national security land; or
acquiring a legal or equitable interest in an exploration tenement in respect of Australian land that, at the time of acquisition, is national security land.
A national security business is one that is carried on wholly or partly in Australia whether for profit or gain and is publicly known, or could be known after reasonable enquiry, that the business:
is a responsible entity or direct interest holder of critical infrastructure assets as defined in the Security of Critical Infrastructure Act 2018 (this covers certain assets across 22 different kinds of critical infrastructure sectors, including: aviation, banking, broadcasting, data storage or processing, defence industry, domain name system, education, electricity, energy markets, financial market infrastructure, food and grocery, freight infrastructure, freight services, gas, hospitals, insurance, liquid fuel asset, port, public transport, superannuation, telecommunications and water and sewerage);
is a carrier or nominated carriage service provider to which the Telecommunications Act 1997 applies;
develops, manufactures or supplies critical goods or critical technology that are for military or intelligence use by Australian or foreign defence or intelligence agencies;
provides critical services to Australian or foreign defence or intelligence agencies;
stores or has access to information that has a security classification;
stores or maintains personal information of Australian defence and intelligence personnel collected by the Australian Defence Force, the Defence Department or an agency in the national intelligence community, which, if accessed, could compromise Australia's national security;
collects, as part of an arrangement with the Australian Defence Force, the Defence Department or an agency in the national intelligence community, personal information on defence and intelligence personnel, which, if disclosed, could compromise Australia's national security; or
stores, maintains or has access to personal information as specified in the above bullet point, which, if disclosed, could compromise Australia's national security.
National security land is any of the following that is in Australia, and is owned or occupied by the Commonwealth for use by the Defence Force or the Department of Defence:
an area of land or any other place (regardless of whether it is enclosed or built on);
a building or other structure;
a prohibited area, within the meaning of the Defence (Special Undertakings) Act 1952; and
the Woomera Prohibited Area.
It also includes land in which the Commonwealth, as represented by an agency in the national intelligence community, has an interest that:
is publicly known; or
could be known upon the making of reasonable inquiries.
Reviewable national security actions
Reviewable national security actions are transactions with an Australian nexus that are not significant actions, notifiable actions or notifiable national security actions. The Treasurer has the power to make orders in relation to these kinds of transactions (including to block them, impose conditions or order divestments) if he considers the transaction to be contrary to national security. Approval does not have to be sought (but see below regarding the Treasurer’s call-in powers).
Call-in powers
Reviewable national security actions and significant actions for which approval is not sought are subject to the Treasurer's 'call-in' powers for a period of 10 years if the Treasurer considers that the transaction poses a national security concern. Seeking approval cuts off the Treasurer’s powers. The Australian government encourages seeking approval for certain kinds of actions.
Money-lending exemption
While FIRB approval is principally a matter of concern from an M&A perspective (where ownership in the shares or assets are actually being transferred), it is also relevant in a debt finance context given that 'obtaining an interest' also extends to the grant of a security interest over shares or assets or the enforcement of security.
In a finance context, there is an exception from this requirement if the interest is either held by way of a security or acquired by way of enforcement of a security, solely for the purpose of a money-lending agreement. This applies to persons whose ordinary business includes the lending of money (which is deliberately broad enough to capture institutions that are not authorised deposit-taking institutions (ADIs) and captures a subsidiary or holding company of a lender, a security trustee or agent, and a receiver or receiver and manager of an entity that holds or acquires the interest). This exception also applies to a 'foreign government investor', although in respect of an interest acquired by way of enforcement of a security, a foreign government investor is restricted in the amount of time it can hold an asset (12 months in the case of an ADI and six months in the case of a non-ADI, unless the foreign government investor is making a genuine attempt to sell the assets acquired by way of enforcement). The money-lending exception has more limited application where the security is over residential land, national security land or a national security business.
Approvals
Where the acquisition is not politically sensitive, these approvals are generally provided as a matter of course, although the need for FIRB approval should be considered where security is being granted over material Australian entities and the imposition of conditions around tax, data handling and the like is becoming routine.
Other government approvals can also be required to take security over certain types of assets (such as mining and resource interests) that are subject to separate regulation.
Note that the above is a summary only. Australia's foreign investment rules are notoriously complex and are affected by non-statutory guidance, and legal advice should always be sought.
Interest withholding tax
Interest withholding tax (IWT) is generally applied at a rate of 10 per cent on gross payments of interest (or payments in the nature of, or in substitution for, interest) made by Australian resident borrowers to non-resident lenders (except where the borrower incurs the interest in carrying on business at or through a permanent establishment outside Australia or where the lender derives interest in carrying on business at or through an Australian permanent establishment or where other exceptions apply). IWT is a final tax and can be reduced (including to zero) by domestic exemptions, such as the public offer exemption, and the operation of Australia's network of double tax agreements (DTAs).
Under DTAs with Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States, there is no IWT for interest derived by a qualifying financial institution unrelated to, and dealing wholly independently with, the borrower (subject to certain exceptions). The definition of a financial institution generally covers banks but can include an enterprise that substantially derives its profits by raising debt finance in the financial markets or by taking deposits at interest and using those funds in carrying on a business of providing finance.
Under Australian domestic law, IWT may also be exempt where the debt satisfies the 'public offer' exemption (contained in sections 128F or 128FA of the Income Tax Assessment Act 1936 (Cth)). Once the debt satisfies the public offer exemption, it is typically more marketable as an incoming lender generally remains entitled to the benefits of the exemption from IWT (subject to certain criteria being met). Broadly, the public offer exemption applies where an Australian company (or eligible unit trusts in certain circumstances) publicly offers certain debt instruments via one of several prescribed means, including (most commonly):
the debt instrument is offered to at least 10 persons, each of whom is carrying on a business of providing finance, or investing or dealing in securities in the course of operating in financial markets, provided each of those persons are not known or suspected by the borrower to be an associate of any of the other persons; or
the debt instrument is offered to the public in an electronic form that is used by financial markets for dealing in debentures or debt interests.
In all cases, the offers must be genuine, which generally requires prospective lenders to be provided with sufficient information and time to properly consider the offers.
The type of debt that may qualify for the public offer exemption consists, broadly, of debentures (which are defined to include notes) and syndicated facility agreements.
If the debt instrument is in the form of a syndicated facility agreement, it can only benefit from the public offer exemption if additional conditions are satisfied, including (among other criteria) that:
there are two or more lenders where each lender severally, but not jointly, agrees to lend money (or otherwise provide financial accommodation);
the agreement describes itself as a 'syndicated loan facility' or 'syndicated facility agreement'; and
the borrowers will have access to at least A$100 million at the time the first loan or other form of financial accommodation is provided.
The public offer exemption is not available where the issuer (or arranger acting as agent for the issuer), as the time of issue or invitation, knew or had reasonable grounds to suspect that a lender would be an 'associate' of the borrower:
who is a non-resident and the debenture or debt interest was not or would not be acquired by the associate in carrying on business at or through a permanent establishment in Australia; or
who is a resident and the debenture or debt interest was or would be acquired by the associate in carrying on business at or through a permanent establishment in a country outside Australia.
There is an exception where the associate acquired the debenture or debt interest in the capacity of a dealer, manager or underwriter in relation to the placement of the debt instrument, or a clearing house, custodian, funds manager or responsible entity of a registered scheme.
IWT relief also applies to certain foreign pension funds and sovereign funds. The IWT exemption will only apply to foreign pension and sovereign funds with (broadly) portfolio-like interests in the borrower, being interests in an entity that are less than 10 per cent of total ownership interests and do not carry an ability to influence the entity's decision-making.
Thin capitalisation
Broadly, Australia has a thin capitalisation regime that can operate to deny income tax deductions for interest expenditure on overly geared Australian groups investing overseas or foreign-controlled Australian groups that have debt deductions over the de minimis threshold of A$2 million for an income year (on an associate-inclusive basis).
With effect from 1 July 2023, taxpayers are subject to new thin capitalisation tests. The default test is the 'fixed ratio test' which, in broad terms, limits net debt deductions for an income year to 30 per cent of a taxpayer's 'tax EBITDA'. Broadly, this is worked out by taking the taxpayer's taxable income or loss for the income year (disregarding the operation of the thin capitalisation rules) and adding back net debt deductions, certain deductions for tax depreciation and capital works. Any net debt deductions that exceed this limit can be carried forward for up to 15 years and utilised in a subsequent income year in which there is excess capacity subject to the satisfaction of recoupment tests.
Where certain conditions are satisfied, a choice can be made by a taxpayer to apply the third-party debt test, which essentially allows debt deductions attributable to third-party debt. Broadly a lender must only be permitted to have recourse to a taxpayer's Australian assets for third-party debt to qualify (among other conditions). Furthermore, a taxpayer will be limited to using the proceeds of the debt to fund commercial activities in connection with Australia.
Finally, where a taxpayer is a member of a worldwide group with audited consolidated financial statements, it may be able to choose to apply the group ratio test which may, in some cases, allow deductions for net debt deductions in excess of the amount permitted under the fixed ratio test.
The previous thin capitalisation rules will generally apply to ADIs and Australian plantation forestry entities. These previous rules involved three methods to calculate the maximum allowable debt of a taxpayer. Most Australian borrowers would have previously relied on the safe harbour under the previous rules, which broadly allowed Australian assets to be funded by up to 60 per cent of the value of a company's Australian assets (or a debt-to-equity ratio of 1.5:1).
From 1 July 2024 (with no transitional period), the debt deduction creation rules, are a set of integrity rules that broadly disallow debt deductions on related party funding to an entity:
to fund the acquisition of an asset (or an obligation) from an associate; or
to fund payments or distributions to an associate.
The debt deduction creation rules apply in priority to the thin capitalisation rules.
Security and guarantees
Common security packages
The Personal Property Securities Act 2009 (Cth) (PPSA) sets out the principles applicable to the grant and perfection of security interests in Australia, principles that should be relatively familiar to anyone who has had experience in a common law jurisdiction.
The PPSA introduced a uniform concept of a 'security interest' to cover all existing concepts of security interests, including certain mortgages, charges, pledges and liens. It applies primarily to security interests in personal property that arise from a consensual transaction that, in substance, secures payment or performance of an obligation. It also applies to certain categories of deemed security interests, so that like transactions will be treated alike. 'Personal property' is broadly defined and essentially includes all property other than land, fixtures and buildings attached to land, water rights and certain statutory licences.
In a typical domestic secured lending scenario, security is most commonly taken by the relevant security providers entering into a general security deed that covers all of the relevant security providers' assets and undertakings (the local equivalent of a debenture). Such an instrument can attach to all forms of 'personal property' (both tangible and intangible) and operates in a similar way to a debenture or security agreement. Accordingly, all-asset security can be obtained from corporate grantors simply and effectively.
In an acquisition context, the general security deed is often supplemented, where necessary, by a specific security deed over the shares of an Australian target (i.e., a share mortgage) granted by its special purpose vehicle or offshore parent. This is often a necessary part of the security structuring where restrictions on the provision of financial assistance (dealt with further below) mean that direct target security cannot be obtained on closing the acquisition. In each case, these security interests are supported by corporate guarantees, which are typically documented in the credit agreement.
To ensure priority and perfection, each of these security interests must be registered on the Personal Property Securities Register (PPSR), created under the PPSA, within 20 business days of the security agreement that gave rise to the security interest coming into force (with some forms of security interest requiring registration within a shorter timeframe, including on or prior to the date that the security interest is granted by the security provider). It is possible for the secured party to register a security interest on the PPSR on and from the time that the secured party believes, on reasonable grounds, it is (or will be) a secured party in relation to the collateral. While not mandatory, registration will generally ensure that the security interest retains its priority against subsequently registered interests and that it remains effective in the event of the insolvency of a corporate security provider. It is possible (and advisable) for lenders to search the PPSR to determine whether there are any prior security interests registered against the relevant entities in the structure (including the Australian-domiciled holding companies and targets, together with any offshore parents of these entities).
Security can be granted over real property (both freehold and leasehold) by way of a registered real property mortgage. Security is only generally sought where the real property in question has operational or economic significance. Unlike security interests that are dealt with under the PPSA, the grant of security over real property is dealt with on a state-by-state basis. However, from a practical perspective, there are few fundamental differences between the regimes in the various states. As with personal property and PPSR searches, the relevant land registries can, and should, be searched to determine what encumbrances or restrictions on title have been registered against the relevant property.
Financial assistance
Section 260A of the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth) imposes restrictions on a company providing financial assistance for the acquisition of its, or its holding companies', shares. Financial assistance includes not only the granting of security, but also the provision of guarantees and indemnities (among other things). While a transaction that breaches this restriction is not invalid, any person involved in the contravention of this provision may be found guilty of a civil offence and subject to civil penalties. This liability can be criminal where a person is dishonestly involved in a breach. This liability (both civil and criminal) can theoretically extend to the lenders.
The general prohibition on the provision of financial assistance is subject to certain exceptions. The most commonly utilised exception is the exception set out in Section 260A(1)(b) of the Corporations Act (colloquially known as the 'whitewash' process), which enables the shareholders of the company to approve the proposed financial assistance. Given that an acquisition financing will invariably involve the grant of target security, the financial assistance rules are particularly relevant to this form of financing. For this reason, security over Australian target entities is generally granted within an agreed period post-closing (typically no less than 30 days) following the completion of the whitewash. This restriction does not affect the grant of security by any Australian-incorporated special purpose holding company, or any offshore parent over its shares in an Australian-domiciled entity, which can be provided in a more timely fashion.
Corporate benefit
Under Australian law, directors owe a number of duties to the companies to which they have been appointed. These duties are enshrined in the Corporations Act, as well as arising under general law, and include a fiduciary duty to act in good faith in the best interests of the company. In a secured lending context, these duties often come under scrutiny in circumstances where a subsidiary is asked to guarantee the debts of its parent or sister companies within the same corporate group. Where the party obtaining the benefit of a guarantee or security knows or ought to know that the directors have not acted in the best interests of the company in providing credit support, the guarantee or security will be voidable against that party. For wholly owned subsidiaries that are considering guaranteeing the debt obligations of their parent, the above duties are often viewed in light of Section 187 of the Corporations Act, which enables a wholly owned subsidiary to adopt a provision in its constitution enabling it to act in the best interests of its holding company (and in so doing, will be deemed to be acting in the best interests of the company itself). Where Section 187 of the Corporations Act is not available, care should be exercised to ensure that the corporate security provider derives some benefit from granting the guarantee or security and that granting the guarantee or security is in the best interests of the corporate security provider.
A guarantee or security could be set aside by a court if that court finds that the directors of the security provider have breached their duties and the lender was aware of that breach.
Administration risk
'Administration risk' describes the risk for a secured party that its security becomes subject to a moratorium if an administrator is appointed to a corporate security provider (which the directors of that entity are likely to do if the company is or is likely to become insolvent). Subject to the consent of the administrator or court order, a secured party is not entitled to enforce its security during the moratorium. This will be the case unless one of the exceptions apply, with the key exception being where the secured party has taken security over all, or substantially all, of the company's assets and the secured party has enforced its entire security interest within the 'decision period'. The decision period runs for 13 business days from the date the secured party was given notice of the appointment of an administrator or the date that the administration begins.
Due to the above, a secured party who holds perfected security over only certain assets (and those assets alone do not comprise all, or substantially all, of the company's assets) will not be able to enforce its security during the moratorium. To address this risk where the primary collateral is limited to specific assets, a 'featherweight' security interest may be taken over all of the grantor's assets (other than the principal secured property) that secures a nominal sum.
Stamp duty
Mortgage duty is no longer payable in any Australian jurisdiction. Furthermore, while ad valorem duty is generally not payable on financing transactions, nominal duty will be payable on a finance document that contains a provision that effects or evidences a declaration of trust over non-dutiable property or unidentified property, and that document has been executed by any party in New South Wales or Victoria.
Australian insolvency regime and its impact on the grant of security
The Australian insolvency regime is codified in the Corporations Act and its associated regulations, and contains a number of provisions that can potentially affect the rights of a creditor of an Australian entity.
Under Australian law, transactions will only be vulnerable to challenge when a company does, in fact, enter into liquidation. Division 2 of Part 5.7B of the Corporations Act provides that a liquidator can bring an application to the court to declare certain transactions void. While an administrator is required, in their statutory report to creditors, to identify potential voidable transactions that may be recoverable by liquidator (if appointed), the administrator does not have standing to challenge these transactions.
There are several types of transactions that can be found to be voidable:
unreasonable director-related transactions;
unfair preferences;
uncommercial transactions;
unfair loans; and
creditor-defeating dispositions (often associated with illegal 'phoenixing' activity).
Except for transactions entered into by companies in voluntary administration, operating under a deed of company arrangement, under restructuring or subject to a restructuring plan, transactions held to be an unfair preference or uncommercial will only be voidable where the transaction was also an 'insolvent transaction'; that is, an unfair preference or uncommercial transaction that occurred while the company was cash-flow insolvent, or caused the company to become cash-flow insolvent.
Each type of voidable transaction has different criteria and must have occurred during certain time periods prior to administration or liquidation. The relevant time periods are generally longer if the transaction involves a related party. For example, there are longer time periods for insolvent transactions involving a related party or entered into to defeat, delay or interfere with the rights of any or all creditors in a winding up may be voidable.
An unfair preference arises in circumstances where an unsecured creditor receives an amount greater than would have been received if the creditor had been required to prove for it in the winding-up of the relevant company, whereas transactions have been held to be uncommercial where an objective bystander in the company's circumstances would not have entered into it.
In addition, the court has the power to determine a loan to be unfair (and, therefore, voidable) if the terms of the loan (specifically the interest and charges) could not be considered to be commercially reasonable (i.e., they are extortionate). In practice, this provision has been seldom used, and the courts in Australia are reluctant to intervene unless the commercial terms greatly deviate from typical market terms (taking into account the financial situation of the company).
A creditor-defeating disposition occurs where company property is transferred and the consideration payable at the time of the agreement (or, where there is no agreement, when the transfer occurred) was less than the market value (or the best price reasonably obtainable), with the effect of preventing, hindering or significantly delaying property becoming available for the benefit of creditors in the winding-up of the company.
Upon the finding of a voidable transaction, a court may make a number of orders, including orders directing a person to transfer the property that was the subject of the impugned transaction back to the company in liquidation and orders directing a person to pay to the company in liquidation an amount that fairly represents the benefit received under the impugned transaction.
Ipso facto stay provisions
With effect from 1 July 2018, provisions were inserted into the Corporations Act giving effect to an automatic stay on the enforcement of ipso facto clauses in certain contracts entered into on or after that date.
The automatic stay will apply where one of the following insolvency events occurs in relation to a company:
voluntary administration;
a receiver or controller is appointed over the whole or substantially the whole of the company's assets;
the company announces, applies for or becomes subject to a scheme of arrangement to avoid a winding-up;
the company is undergoing restructuring pursuant to the regime for companies with liabilities of less than A$1 million.
The automatic stay will not apply retrospectively (i.e., for agreements entered into prior to the new provisions coming into force) unless an existing agreement is varied or novated after 1 July 2023. The automatic stay does not apply to other types of contractual defaults – for example, if the company has failed to meet its payment or other performance obligations under the relevant agreement.
The length of the automatic stay depends on which formal insolvency process applies to the company as follows (subject to a court order extending the stay):
scheme of arrangement: the stay will end within three months of the announcement, or where an application is made within that three months, when the application is withdrawn or dismissed by the court or when the scheme ends or the company is wound up;
receivership or managing controllership: the stay will end when the receiver's or managing controller's control ends;
voluntary administration: the stay will end on the later of when the administration ends or the company is fully wound up; and
restructuring: the stay will end on the later of when the restructuring ends or the company is fully wound up.
Importantly, the automatic stay does not apply once or if a company executes a deed of company arrangement (DOCA). The automatic stay ends when the 'administration ends', that is when a DOCA is executed by the company and the deed administrator. Accordingly, if a company does execute a DOCA and needs the protection of the automatic stay, then subject to limited exceptions, it will need to obtain court orders.
When the stay ends, termination or other rights which accrued before it ended are not re-enlivened. However, the company is no longer protected from its counterparty exercising rights which accrue after the end of the stay.
Even though the automatic stay provisions came into operation from 1 July 2018, it has been the subject of little judicial consideration. The two principal cases in which it has been considered largely confirmed the stay provisions operate as expected (and as we have noted above).
The scope of the automatic stay, specifically what contract types, rights and self-executing provisions are excluded by the automatic stay are set out in the legislation. Relevantly, syndicated loans (and derivatives) are excluded from the operation of the automatic stay, and rights under those contracts will remain available to the parties should a trigger event occur. Accordingly, the impact of these changes on acquisition financings (which contemplate a customary security package) has been minimal.
By contract, bilateral facility agreements are not excluded under the relevant legislation and as such the automatic stay provisions will apply to agreements entered into after 1 July 2018. The Asia Pacific Loan Market Association has issued a recommended rider clause for lenders to include in bilateral facility agreements to assist a lender in accelerating the loan as against a guarantor of that facility where the borrower is subject to a relevant insolvency process. It is important to note that this right to accelerate the loan as against the guarantor will not operate where the guarantor itself is also the subject of a relevant insolvency process under the Corporations Act.
In addition, the automatic stay does not prevent secured creditors from appointing a receiver during the decision period pursuant to Section 441A of the Corporations Act (if they have security over the whole or substantially the whole of the company's property) or enforcing security interests over perishable goods or prevent secured creditors or receivers from continuing enforcement action that commenced before the administration.
Priority of claims
Priority of claims on insolvency
Generally, unsecured claims in Australia will rank equally on a pari passu basis. Section 555 of the Corporations Act provides that, unless the Corporations Act provides otherwise, all debts and claims in a winding-up rank equally, and if the property of the company is insufficient to meet them in full, these claims will be paid proportionately.
There are a number of exceptions to this general proposition (Section 556 of the Corporations Act), including:
expenses properly incurred by a liquidator or administrator in preserving or realising property of the company, or in carrying on the company's business (as well as other costs and amounts owed to them); and
employee entitlements.
Sitting outside this regime are secured creditors, who will have priority over unsecured creditors. The security granted in their favour will entitle them to priority for payment of amounts outstanding from the proceeds and realisations of assets subject to security interests. There is one exception to this, which is that employee entitlements have a statutory priority to the proceeds of assets subject to a circulating security interest (formerly, a floating charge) on realisation by a receiver or liquidator to the extent that the property of the company is insufficient to meet these amounts.
Subordination and the enforceability of intercreditor arrangements
Contractual subordination is a well-accepted tenet of secured lending in Australia; accordingly, intercreditor arrangements are commonly used in Australia to contractually clarify the relationship between two or more classes of creditor (including shareholder lenders and hedging counterparties).
Structural subordination is, however, less common (with a notable exception for holdco payment-in-kind instruments, which have been gaining popularity in recent times). Accordingly, second-lien structures can be accommodated relatively easily from a local perspective, where contractual subordination is typically documented via an offshore law-governed intercreditor arrangement.
Unlike that contained in the Loan Market Association suite of documents, there is currently no market standard intercreditor in Australia. A set of intercreditor principles (primarily applicable to leveraged transactions) has been circulated within the market, although they have not been universally adopted. Accordingly, a number of the provisions that these principles attempted to standardise (e.g., drag rights, standstill periods, mezzanine information rights and release provisions) remain heavily negotiated.
Jurisdiction
Consent to jurisdiction
Australian courts will generally respect the submission of an Australian entity to the courts of another jurisdiction, provided the choice of jurisdiction was not entirely unconnected with the commercial realities of the proposed transaction (and that there are no public policy reasons to deny such a submission).
Enforceability of foreign judgments
In Australia, the enforcement of civil judgments obtained in foreign courts is generally covered by two regimes. The first is under the Foreign Judgments Act 1991 (Cth) (FJA), which applies to certain specified courts in prescribed jurisdictions. Where the relevant court is not prescribed by the FJA, the enforceability of the relevant judgment will be dealt with by common law principles.
The FJA provides a framework, based on registration, for civil judgments made in prescribed foreign courts to be enforceable in Australia. This regime applies to judgments made by specific courts in prescribed jurisdictions, for example, certain Swiss, French, Italian, German and UK courts. Under the FJA, a judgment creditor of a relevant foreign judgment may apply to an Australian court for that judgment to be registered any time within six years of the last judgment in the foreign court. The judgment may be registered if it is final and conclusive for a fixed sum of money (not being in respect of taxes, a fine or other penalty), and is enforceable by execution in the relevant foreign country. Registration gives the judgment the same force and effect as if the judgment originally had been given in the Australian registering court (subject to certain exceptions). Special rules are also applicable to the enforceability of New Zealand judgments. The registration may be set aside if the foreign court did not have the necessary jurisdiction over the judgment debtor, either because the judgment debtor did not reside or carry on business in the jurisdiction when the proceedings were brought or did not otherwise submit to the jurisdiction of the court.
However, in certain jurisdictions (such as the United States) where Australia does not have the benefit of a treaty that provides for the reciprocal recognition and enforcement of judgments in civil matters, there is no statutory recognition or statutory enforcement in Australia of any judgment obtained in a court in such a jurisdiction. Instead, a judgment made by a court of the relevant jurisdiction can only be enforced in Australia under the common law regime.
Under that regime, any final, conclusive and unsatisfied judgment of the relevant court that has the necessary jurisdiction over the judgment debtor that is in personam (i.e., it imposes a personal obligation on the defendant) and is for a definite sum of money (not being a sum in respect of taxes or other charges of a like nature or in respect of a fine or other penalty) will be enforceable by the judgment creditor against the judgment debtor by action in the Australian courts (without re-examination of the merits of the issues determined by the proceedings in the relevant court). There are some exceptions, including where the proceedings involved a denial of the principles of natural justice, or the judgment was obtained by fraud or some other vitiating factor.
In seeking to enforce a foreign judgment under either regime, a practical difficulty often encountered if the foreign proceeding was not defended is proving that the foreign court has the necessary jurisdiction over the judgment debtor. Where the debtor is a corporation, the applicant will need to show that the debtor carried on business within the jurisdiction of the foreign court, either by maintaining a branch office or by employing an agent with the authority to bind the company and to conduct business there on its behalf.
In respect of recognition of foreign insolvency proceedings, Australia has enacted the UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross-Border Insolvency in the Cross-Border Insolvency Act 2008 (Cth). Australian courts recognise the jurisdiction of insolvency proceedings, including a foreign main proceeding in which a debtor's centre of main interests is located. Australian courts generally cooperate with foreign courts and insolvency practitioners.
Acquisitions of public companies
Restriction on acquiring more than 20 per cent
The Corporations Act restricts a person from acquiring a 'relevant interest' in issued voting securities in a listed Australian company, or an unlisted Australian company with more than 50 members, where this would cause that person's (or someone else's) 'voting power' to increase from below 20 per cent to above 20 per cent from a starting point above 20 per cent and below 90 per cent.
There are exceptions to the above restrictions, including the two principal methods of acquiring control of an Australian publicly listed company: off-market takeover bids (Takeover Bids) and schemes of arrangement (Schemes).
Takeover bids
Overview
A Takeover Bid involves a bidder making offers to shareholder to acquire their securities for consideration. To make a Takeover Bid, a bidder prepares and sends a bidder’s statement to target security holders outlining the terms of its offer. The target then responds by preparing and issuing a target's statement that includes the target board's recommendation and an independent expert's report as to whether the transaction is fair and reasonable. Shareholders then determine whether to accept the offer made to them, which must remain open for at least one month and no more than 12 months as determined by the bidder.
Unlike a Scheme, a Takeover Bid does not require the support of the target and can be made on a hostile or friendly basis.
Consideration
All offers under a Takeover Bid must be on the same terms and the consideration offered may be cash, listed or unlisted shares, or a combination of both. The Corporations Act restricts bidders from providing collateral benefits to induce acceptances or agreeing to escalation clauses. A bidder is also required to comply with the ‘minimum bid price rule’, requiring it to offer consideration that is equal to or greater than the highest consideration it or its associates have paid for securities in the four months before the Takeover Bid.
Conditionality
A Takeover Bid may be subject to any conditions the bidder chooses, other than conditions that are solely within the control of the bidder (or turn on the bidder's state of mind).
Typical conditions include:
the receipt of necessary regulatory approvals, e.g., FIRB or ACCC approval;
a no material adverse change in the target business;
no prescribed occurrences arises, such as payment of unauthorised dividends or changes to the capital structure of the target; and
no legal restraints or prohibitions arising.
In addition to the above, it is common for a Takeover Bid to also include a minimum acceptance condition, requiring a minimum number of acceptances to be received to ensure the bidder reaches a certain ownership threshold, usually 50 per cent (to achieve practical control) or 90 per cent (to proceed to compulsory-acquire the remaining 10 per cent). A bidder is prohibited from including a ‘maximum acceptance condition’.
Financing certainty
The Corporations Act prohibits persons from making a Takeover Bid if they are unable, or are reckless as to whether they are able, to complete the Takeover Bid.
The Australian Takeovers Panel has separately indicated that it expects that a bidder has a reasonable basis to fund a Takeover Bid, and where the Takeover Bid is debt-funded a bidder would have binding commitments from its lenders at the time of announcing its Takeover Bid and would not declare its bid unconditional unless it is highly confident that it can draw down on these facilities (i.e., binding funding arrangements are documented in final form and commercially significant conditions precedent to draw down have been satisfied or there is no material risk the conditions precedent will not be satisfied).
However, unlike other jurisdictions, such as the United Kingdom, there is no requirement to have these funding arrangements verified or for 'cash confirmations' to be provided by a financial adviser to the bidder.
Schemes
Overview
A Scheme is a statutory procedure under the Corporations Act that involves target shareholders agreeing to transfer or cancel their target securities in exchange for consideration offered by the bidder.
To commence a Scheme, a bidder and target will enter a scheme implementation deed (SID) that sets out the process for how the Scheme will be implemented, alongside other provisions agreed between the parties, such as conditions and deal exclusivity arrangements. A Scheme is typically implemented through the following steps:
After the SID is signed, the target will apply to a court to convene the shareholders meeting (known as the Scheme Meeting) for shareholders to vote on the Scheme. The target will also prepare the explanatory statement and notice of meeting (known as the Scheme Booklet) that will be dispatched to shareholders to inform them of the Scheme ahead of their vote at the Scheme Meeting. An independent expert’s report is typically included in the Scheme Booklet.
The Scheme Meeting is held and must be approved by target shareholders (or each relevant class of shareholders) by both 75 per cent of the votes cast on the resolution and more than 50 per cent in number of the target shareholders voting on the resolution (in person or by proxy).
Once approved by shareholders, the court is then asked to approve the Scheme at a further hearing (known as the Second Court Hearing). If approved, the Scheme is then implemented by the bidder paying the consideration and receiving the target securities.
A Scheme is a target-led process, requiring the target to take several steps including applying to court, holding the Scheme Meeting and preparing the Scheme Booklet. For this reason, a Scheme is only viable in a friendly (and not hostile) situation.
The advantage of Schemes
Schemes are typically preferred to Takeover Bids where full ownership is important to the bidder, such as in public-to-private transactions. This is because it is typically easier to achieve 100 per cent ownership under a Scheme, since provided the voting thresholds described above are met, all shareholders (including those who dissent or do not vote) are bound to the Scheme. In comparison, to achieve 100 per cent ownership under a Takeover Bid, a bidder and its associates must have a relevant interest in 90 per cent of the target's securities to proceed to compulsory acquisition of the remaining shares (or ‘squeeze out’ the remaining shareholders), which usually requires a higher proportion of target shareholders to accept the Takeover Bid than to vote in favour of the Scheme.
A Scheme is also an ‘all or nothing’ proposition, meaning that if it is approved, 100 per cent of the securities will be acquired or, if not approved, no shares will be acquired. A Takeover Bid may require the bidder to waive its minimum acceptance condition in order to encourage acceptances to reach a 90 per cent relevant interest and proceed to compulsory acquisition.
However, a Scheme is only viable in a friendly (and not hostile) situation and may not be appropriate where the target register is such as to make meeting the voting thresholds challenging. Dual offer structures have also emerged in Australia to achieve certain outcomes. These often involve a bidder making a Scheme and Takeover Bid concurrently, with the Scheme at a higher price to the Takeover Bid to encourage target shareholders to support it (and avoid being faced with a Takeover Bid at a lower price that may lead the bidder to achieve practical control of the target).
Consideration
The consideration under a Scheme can include cash or listed or unlisted securities (known as 'stub equity') or a combination of the two. Unlike a Takeover Bid, it is not necessary for all offers under a Scheme to be on equal terms, which more easily facilitates differential treatment of security holders. However, where the same consideration (or choice of consideration) is not offered to all shareholders equally, or if those shareholders have materially different interests under the Scheme, this may result in the creation of classes of shareholders with each class being required to approve the Scheme to the thresholds noted above.
Schemes have increasingly been used by private equity bidders to offer stub equity as a method of having shareholders (or a select class of them, such as founders, managers or large shareholders) rollover a portion of their target shares into shares in the bidder.
Conditionality
A Scheme can be subject to similar conditions as to a Takeover Bid as those mentioned above.
Financing
A target will usually require the bidder to provide evidence (in the form of debt or equity commitment letters) of its ability to pay the scheme consideration before it will enter the SID and commence the Scheme process. On a practical level this often results in bidders seeking 'certain funding’ from their financiers (i.e., binding commitments to provide financing subject only to the satisfaction of a limited set of conditions, the accuracy of certain material representations, the absence of major defaults and it still being lawful for the financiers to provide the facilities at the time of funding). It is not customary for a target to agree to any form of financing condition in a SID and it is common for a target to seek representations and warranties from the bidder to the effect that it has sufficient amounts to pay the Scheme consideration at all times from signing the SID until the Scheme is approved by the court.
As part of the court approval process, the bidder will be required to satisfy the court that it has sufficient funds to pay the Scheme consideration and consummate the transaction before the court will approve it. To remove execution risk for shareholders, it is common for a court to expect the SID (and related documentation) to require a bidder to fund any cash consideration into a trust account of the target no later than the business day before the shares are transferred to it on the implementation date.
Other uses of Schemes
Schemes can also be used to implement corporate restructures, demergers and debt-for-equity transactions. Specific to creditors' schemes of arrangement, on 3 May 2021, the federal government undertook a public consultation inquiry with industry on improving creditors' schemes of arrangement to better support businesses, including by introducing a moratorium on creditor enforcement while schemes are being negotiated. The consultation aimed to assess whether the current creditor scheme of arrangement process is useful as a means of restructuring insolvent companies. In its current form, the scheme of arrangement process is typically used in relation to complex restructurings of large corporate groups, involve a high level of court involvement and, unlike other insolvency processes (such as voluntary administration), there is no automatic moratorium to prevent creditors from bringing claims against the company during the negotiation and formation of the scheme. The consultation also sought input on the efficacy of the current scheme of arrangement framework generally.
Outlook and conclusions
Looking ahead to 2026, the outlook for acquisition and leveraged financing in Australia is cautiously optimistic. Although global political and economic uncertainty persists, market sentiment towards Australia remains positive as dealmakers recognise that Australia has attractive features (including legal certainty, robust regulatory frameworks, a relative low risk compared with regional markets and dynamic industries) that remain intact and available to support deal flow, even in the face of global trade and economic headwinds. In addition, the easing of monetary policy, as evidenced by the Reserve Bank of Australia’s decision in August 2025 to cut the cash rate to 3.60 per cent, should reduce pressure on borrowing costs. While base rates remain high relative to pre-2022 levels, strong liquidity and growing investor confidence suggests that transaction volumes will continue to recover.
However, execution timetables will increasingly need to adapt to the introduction of the new mandatory ACCC merger control regime, which comes into effect on 1 January 2026, with voluntary notification already available from 1 July 2025. This reform replaces the informal clearance mechanism with a statutory system featuring mandatory filing thresholds, a public register of notified acquisitions, and fixed statutory review timelines, with the ACCC serving as the primary decision-maker. While simpler transactions may clear quickly, the regime is expected to result in increased scrutiny on large-scale buyouts and roll-up strategies. As a result, earlier competition analysis, pre-notification engagement, longer lead times, and more rigorous credit and execution planning will become necessary.
Despite these regulatory changes, we expect M&A activity to increase further in 2026 as pricing expectations between buyers and sellers converge, the cost of funding continues to ease and banks and private lenders continue to compete for high-quality credits. While inflation, tariff disruptions, and geopolitical uncertainties dampened exit activity in 2025, resulting in a two-year low for global private equity exits in Q1 2025, abundant dry powder and renewed buyer sentiment point to a potential wave of noteworthy exits in 2026. Several high-profile transactions in Australia are anticipated for late 2025 and into 2026, including two involving the disposal of non-bank lending businesses, being KKR's potential exit of Pepper Money and Affinity Equity Partners’ potential divestment of Scottish Pacific.
Beyond M&A opportunities in the financial services space, data centres is another sector that is expected to be a significant source of deal activity in 2026, supported by ongoing hyperscaler investment and government incentives. Energy transition infrastructure, including renewable generation, storage and grid upgrades, is expected to contribute towards increased loan activity as well. Other sectors that may see elevated deal volumes are healthcare and industrials, while real estate lending is expected to remain heavily reliant on private credit, with pricing reflecting underlying project risk.
We expect to see the continued rise and influence of private credit and non-bank lenders. The recent boom in private credit, caused in part by the tighter controls and restrictions on larger traditional banks, is attractive both for investors in search of yield but also borrowers looking for funding products with flexibility (i.e., unitranche or TLB financings). The recent launches and expansions of funds by Brookfield, Oaktree and MA Financial demonstrates the strong investor appetite for private credit exposure. However, increased attention is expected on the regulatory framework underpinning the private credit market. ASIC has announced that it will continue its surveillance work and industry consultation for the remainder of 2025, as it prepares to propose some actionable items and a roadmap for regulatory uplift by year end. We expect any new regulatory requirements to take the form of greater disclosure and transparency, aimed at improving market integrity and investor outcomes rather than addressing any perceived risks to financial stability, due to ASIC’s view that the Australian private credit market is still relatively small in size when compared to other jurisdictions.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Deborah Johns, Julian Cheng, Hanh Chau, Nick Cooper, Sean Meehan, Tom Gardner, Jane Khoo, Jason Yu and Christopher Dedes for their assistance with the preparation of this chapter.